Noryang

After the Myeongryang Battle, the Japan retreated far distance away from the main naval quarter of Admiral Yi sun-shin in Woongcheon. Admiral Yi sun-shin gathered naval force, battle ships, military supplies, and weapons to move the main naval quarter to the east. On February 17, 1958, the Admiral established the commanding headquarter in Gogeumdo to protect the sea from the Gonisi Ukinaga Command and rebuild the naval force. After establishing the commanding headquarter in Gogeumdo, the Admiral was able to obtain the military supply in food for the next battle since Gogeumdo had many plane area for people were able to farm in the area. After the great victory of the Myeongryang Battle, numerous refugees of war came to this island. The Admiral was able to re-organize the navy with them. According to Jingbirok, Admiral Yi sun-shin trained some 8,000 refugees and he had his share of concerns for military supplies and food.

The fleet of Ming Dynasty joined the fleet of Yi sun-shin on July 16. Thereafter, the Joseon-Ming United Forces had numerous large and small battles together. After the death of Toyotomi on August 18, the Japanese royal court ordered the Japanese force in Joseon to retreat by November. Gonisi Ukinaga attempted to retreat, but he was caught on the gateway by the Joseon-Ming United Forces and could not escape. Then, Gonisi Yukinaga tried to bribe Jin Lin and sent his ships to other camps of the Japanese forces. The generals under Yi sun-shin knew of the fact and informed the same to the Admiral. The Admiral held the meeting with his generals and determined to march into Noryang.

The battle in Noryang

On November 18, the Fleet of Yi sun-shin went on to the sea of Noryang to wait for the fleet of Simazu that came to the area in response to the request of Gonisi Ukinaga. The fleet of Jin Lin could not come to the terms with Gonisi Yukinaga that it joined with the Fleet of Yi sun-shin to fight.

At that time, the wind was blowing northwest and the Joseon-Ming United Forces was able to enjoy the advantages. The Joseon-Ming United Forces attacked the Japan with the canons on the ship. Soon, the Japanese battle ships caught the fire and attempted to retreat. While retreating, the Japan was surrounded in the port. The Japanese forces had fiercely fought to escape the port. In the middle of the battle, Admiral Yi sun-shin died from the gun shot wound with his son, Yi Hoe looking on. The Admiral left one of his great remarks before his death in "Do not let my death be known."

Rasbha

Ṛṣabhanātha or Lord Ṛṣabha is the first of the 24 Jinas of the present cycle of time. There are many versions of his name but he is commonly called Ādinātha – First Lord. The name Ṛṣabha means ‘bull’.

The word Jina means 'victor' in Sanskrit. A Jina is an enlightened human being who has triumphed over karma through practising extreme asceticism and teaches the way to achieve liberation. A Jina is also called a Tīrthaṃkara or 'ford-maker' in Sanskrit – that is, one who has founded a community after reaching omniscience.

Ṛṣabha’s symbolic colour is gold and his emblem the ox or bull. Unusually in depictions of Jinas, statues and paintings of Ṛṣabha often show long locks of hair falling on his shoulders that help identify him.

Like all Jinas, Ṛṣabha has a pair of spiritual attendants, often shown in art. His yakṣa is Gomukha and his yakṣī is Cakreśvarī.

Story

There is no historical evidence of the existence of Ṛṣabhanātha or Lord Ṛṣabha, but he is credited with setting up the customs and institutions of society. These include the caste system, marriage, farming, crafts, reading, writing and mathematics.

Tradition holds that Ṛṣabha was born in Ayodhyā, son of the patriarch Nābhi and his queen, Marudevī. Ṛṣabha is said to have achieved liberation on Mount Aṣṭāpada, also known as Mount Kailāsa.

Ṛṣabha had many children and when he renounced the householder life to become the first mendicant his eldest son Bharata succeeded him as king. Ṛṣabha divided parts of his kingdom among his other sons, including Bāhubali. His daughters Brāhmī and Sundarī became the first nun and the first lay woman and are counted among the sol satī.

Cleinis

The husband of Harpe and father of Lycius, Ortygius, Harpasus, and Artemicha. He lived in Mesopotamia, near Babylon, and was beloved by Apollo and Artemis. Having heard that the Hyperboreans sacrificed asses to Apollo, he wished to introduce the same custom at Babylon; but Apollo threatened him, and commanded that only sheep, goats, and heifers should be sacrificed.

Lycius and Harpasus, the sons of Cleinis, however, persisted in sacrificing asses, whereupon Apollo infuriated the animals so as to attack the family of Cleinis. Other divinities, however, took pity upon the family, and changed all its members into different birds.

Sources:

▪Antoninus Liberalis, 20.

▪Smith, William. (1870). Dictionary of       Greek and Roman Biography and   Mythology. London: Taylor, Walton, and   Maberly.

Bel-ibni

(Bel-ib - nor or in-ib-ni) Babylonian King, of origin Chaldean and educated in Nineveh, put on the throne by the Assyrian king Sennacherib in the year 702 BC, after you have removed to Marduk-apla-iddina II. However, after three years and after plunder Akkad, the Assyrian king took him prisoner to Bel-ibni and his dignitaries by their Collaborationism with the Babylonians, and carried them captive to Assyria. Instead, he/she put his own eldest son, called Ashur-nadin-shumi. Bel-ibni is documented in Babylonian real list and some letters and economic texts.

Ashur-nadin-shumi

(ASH-shur-MU-MU or ASH-shur-na-din-MU) King of Babylon from the 9th dynasty (Assyrian domain), eldest son of the Assyrian king Sennacherib, who elevated him to the Babylonian throne instead of Bel-ibni, educated Chaldean Assyrian, but completely ineffective Court noble. In its sixth year of reign, according to a chronic paleobabyllonican, and while his father was busy campaigning in the South of Babylon to submit to a local warlord's name Shuzubu (later known as Mushezib-Marduk) and in another by the Elam, Khallushu-inshushinak, Elamite King, invaded suddenly North of Babylon, sacked Sippar, massacred its inhabitants and captured Ashur-nadin-shumiled who to Elam, where died. The Elamite King put on the throne of Babylon to Nergal-ushezib. Ashur-nadin-shumi has not come no registration, even though his name is recorded in Babylonian sources and also a Canon eponymic.

Marduk-apla-iddina II

(biblical form of the name MARDUK-APLA-IDDINA II; reigned 721–710 B.C.)

   King of Babylon. The career of Merodach-baladan, originally a tribal leader of the Chaldeans in southern Babylonia, is unusually well documented, due to his long struggle against Assyrian supremacy. In the Assyrian records, he is depicted as an archenemy and “terrorist” avant la lettre; he was especially loathed by Sennacherib. According to Babylonian sources, he was a “good” Babylonian king who maintained the privileges of the cult cities, invested in irrigation, restored temples, and fought Assyrian oppression. According to the Bible (2 Kings 18 and Isaiah 39), he sent a delegation to the Judean king Hezekiah, perhaps in the hope of gaining support against Sennacherib.

Merodach-baladan is first mentioned as the “king of the Sealand” in the annals of Tiglath-pileser III, who fought a campaign against the rebellious southern tribes. Profiting from the internal problems in Assyria following the death of Shalmaneser V in 722, he established himself as king of Babylon. Sargon II was determined to win back Assyrian control over Babylonia and launched a series of attacks meant to dislodge the Chaldean king from Babylon. He inflicted defeats on the Babylonian forces and declared himself king of Babylon, while Merodach-baladan went to Elam to ask for military assistance against the Assyrians.

   By the time Sargon died in 705, Merodach-baladan had assembled a formidable alliance and challenged the new king Sennacherib on two fronts. The Assyrians managed to defeat the Babylonian allies, and Sennacherib entered Babylon, where he captured the wives of Merodach-baladan. He had these women transported to Assyria, together with other Babylonian nobles and much treasure. Sennacherib sought to safeguard Assyrian interests by placing a puppet ruler on the Babylonian throne, whom he replaced in 700 with his own son and crown prince, Ashur-nadin-shumi.

   Sennacherib launched a final attack against the south, where Merodach-baladan had taken refuge in the marshes. However, he was not to succeed; Merodach-baladan had escaped to the Elamite coast, and in the counterattack mounted by Elam, Sennacherib’s son was kidnapped and probably killed. Merodach-baladan’s end is not known, but he evaded capture by the Assyrians.

Gaochang

The name "Ancient City of Gaochang" means "King's City" in the Uighur language. As matter of fact, it was indeed served as the capital of Gaochang Kingdom (460-640) in the ancient time. Situated at about 40 kilometers east of Turpan of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Ancient City of Gaochang dates from the first century BC and is impressive for its magnificence and charming. It spans an area of more than 2,000,000 square meters and was listed as one of the country's key protected cultural sites of China in 1961 and also known as the largest site of ancient city in Chinese western region so far.

Gaochang (also known as Qara-hoja in Uighur language), which is about 27 kilometers southeast of modern Turpan, was originally a stopping point for merchant traders traveling on the Silk Road and then gradually became the political, economic, cultural and transport center of Chinese western region. In this narrow Turpan Basin, a series of 4 independent kingdoms followed from the middle of 5th century to 7th century. It is a world religious hotspot as well.

Oblong in shape, Ancient City of Gaochang has a circumference of 5.4 kilometers and is made up of three sections: outer city, inner city and palace. The outer wall was built by stamping earth with a height of 11.5 meters and a width of 12 meters. The gate in the north is the best preserved among 9 gates. Most of the old buildings disappeared or damaged badly because of wars at the end of 13 century except two temples in the southwest and southeast respectively. Since its pattern of city layout is similar to the Chang'an City (present Xi’an) of Tang Dynasty (618-907), the archaeologists claim that the Ancient City of Gaochang is western region version of Chang'an during the thriving period of Tang Dynasty. Entering the city, visitors can see walls, Khan Barrier and fire towers and so on.

Brief History

Built in the 1st century B.C., the Ancient City of Gaochang goes through millennium vicissitudes.

After the fall of Former Qin Dynasty (前秦, 351-394), Houliang Dynasty (后凉,386-403), Xiliang Dynasty (西凉, 400-421), etc., it was getting more and more prominent. Therefore, the original political, economic and cultural center of Turpan Basin has been shifted from Ancient City of Jiaohe to Ancient City of Gaochang in 450. Since then, families Zhang, Ma, and Qu ruled the kingdom one after another. Among them, Qu family swayed the kingdom for a long time, which lasted more than 140 years (499-640). The kingdoms in Gaochang all had very close relations with the ruling dynasties in the central plains and have received honorific titles by emperors. In 640, Gaochang area has been unified by Tang Dynasty (618-907) and then was under control by Tibetan people at the end of the 8th century. In the middle of 9th century, the Uighur moved westward to Gaochang and established the kingdom here. In 1209, they were subordinate themselves to Mongolia in 1209 during the Genghis Khan period. 

The Historical Value

As a hub and prominent connection to central Asia and Europe, the Ancient City of Gaochang was getting more and more prominent since Han Dynasty (B.C.202-A.D.220) and Tang Dynasty (618-907). The hyperactive foreign trade in this area boosted the fast development in all aspects, especially attracted various religions around the world. It was gradually evolved into the most developed and vigorous religious region. Monk Xuanzang (玄奘,602-664, a famous Chinese Buddhist monk and scholar in Tang Dynasty) made his seventeen years journey to India in search of sacred books of Buddhism. During his trip, he stopped at Gaochang for explaining and teaching sutras. It is said that the King of Gaochang enchanted by his knowledge of the sacred Buddha books and they become sworn brothers at last. Established in the first century BC and deserted in the 13th century, Ancient City of Gaochang has a long history of over 2,000 years and has been in use for more than 1,300 years, which is the best witness for millenarian culture and history in western region.

Ashina

Ashina (Chinese: 阿史那; pinyin: Āshǐnà; Wade–Giles: A-shih-na; Middle Chinese: (Guangyun) ), also spelled Asen, Asena, or Açina, was a tribe and the ruling dynasty of the ancient Turks who rose to prominence in the mid-6th century when their leader, Bumin Khan, revolted against the Rouran. The two main branches of the family, one descended from Bumin and the other from his brother Istemi, ruled over the eastern and western parts of the Göktürk empire, respectively.

NAME

The recent re-reading of the Bugut inscription, the oldest inscription of the Ashina dynasty, written in Sogdian, by a Japanese team of philologists has suggested that the name, known only in the Chinese transcription of Ashina, was in fact Ashinas. It is in fact known in later Arabic sources under this form.

ETYMOLOGY

Findley assumes that the name Ashina probably comes from one of the Saka languages of central Asia and means "blue", gök in Turkic, the color identified with the east, so that Göktürk, another name for the Turk empire, meant the "Turks of the East". This is seconded by the Hungarian researcher András Róna-Tas, who finds it plausible "that we are dealing with a royal family and clan of Saka origin".

"Ashina" means either "noble wolf" in Turkic languages - wolf being Bure or Kaskyr. In Mongolian languages wolf is - Shono or Chono. "A" - is the prefix of respect in Chinese; other opinions - or roots of the ethnonym "Ashina" are to be found in Saka-Wusun tribal anthroponymes.

H.W. Haussig and S.G. Kljyashtorny suggest an association between the name and the compound "kindred of Ashin" ahşaẽna - Old Persian, which can get quite satisfactory etymological development. This is so even in East Turkestan - then the desired form would be in the Sogdian 'xs' yn' k (-әhšēnē) "blue, dark"; Khotan-Saka (Brahmi) āşşeiņa (-āşşena) "blue", where a long -ā- emerged as development ahş-> āşş-; in Tocharian A āśna- "blue, dark" (from Khotan-Saka and Sogdian). The Saka etymology ashina (<āşşeiņa ~ āşşena) with the value "blue" (the color of the sky) is phonetically and semantically flawless. There is a textual support for this version in the ancient runic inscriptions of the Turks.

In the large Orkhon inscriptions, in the story of the first Kagan, people living in the newly created empire, are named kök türk - translated as "Celestial Turks". Without touching the numerous interpretations kök may have in this combination, we note its perfect semantic match with the reconstructed value of the name Ashina. An explicit semantic calque suggests knowledge of its original meaning and foreign origin, which is compatible with the multi-ethnic, multi-cultural nature of the First Turkic khanate, which entailed the loss, however, of the popularity of "national character", in the words of L. Bazin, as was the political and cultural environment of the Otyuken regime of the era of Bilge Kagan.

The name Ashina was recorded in Ancient Arab chronicles in the form - Sha - ne.

WRITING

Ashina writing system was taken from Sogdian language. The letters used in the construction of the memorial stele describing the heroic exploits of the members of the ruling kagan kind were Sogdian. Thus the main inscription on the stele Bugutskoy set up in honor of one of the rulers of the First Turkic khanate, is written Sogdian letter. A Sogdian inscription is found on the Broadsword discovered in the burial of the ancient Turkic warrior at the monument at Jolene in the Altai Mountains.

During the period of the Second Eastern Turk ancient Turkic runic writing spread, which was also influenced by Sogdian letters. Runes are widespread among the nomadic Turkic peoples in the early Middle Ages.

FUNERAL RITE

Tanshu describes the funeral rites Ashina as follows: "The body of the deceased be lieved in a tent. Sons, grandchildren and relatives of both sexes slaughter horses and sheep, and as they spread around in front of the tent, sacrifice; they ride on horseback seven times around the tent, and then, at the entrance to the tent slit their own faces with a knife weeping, and spill their blood forward; pouring blood and tears collectively. They do so seven times and it is over. Later in the chosen day they take the horse on which the deceased used to ride, and the things that he used, and burn them along with the corpse: the ashes are then collected and buried in a certain season into the grave. Those who died in the spring and summer, are buried when the leaves on the trees and plants begin to turn yellow and fall; those who died in the fall or winter are buried when the flowers begin to unfold. On the day of the funeral, as well as on the day of his death, the family offers a sacrifice, rides horses and slit their face. The building, which was built on the grave, is decorated with the portrait of the face of the dead man and with the description of battles in which he was as in the continuation of life. Usually they put one stone for every man he killed, they may have a different number of such stones, up to a hundred or even a thousand. when bringing sheep and horses as a sacrifice to a single, they hang their heads on the milestones."

According to D. G. Savinov, no archaeological monument is fully consistent with the description given by I. Bichurin, neither South Siberia nor Central Asia is known yet, although many of its elements are found already in the early Turkic time. According D. G.Savinov this may be for several reasons:

Tukyue burial sites in Central Asia and Southern Siberia are not yet open;

The source is a compilation in character, and burial rituals and funeral cycle from various sources are listed in a unified description;

'Tukye' funeral rites in the form in which it is recorded in written sources, developed later on the basis of the various components present in some of the archaeological sites of Southern Siberia of early Turkic time.

It is certain that the rite of cremation was adopted among Turkic Hagan and a very narrow ruling stratum of kaganates. Ie it was inherent in it is the "prince of the tribe," Ashin, who had as possible will consider Indo-European origin. Rite of cremation, obviously did not spread among the common people of Turkic, i.e. did not have a mass character. This may well be at the origin of the other ethnic groups of the ruling family.

As a result of the use of the rite described Tanshu, of a very narrow class of people (aristocracy), Savinova' s assumption most likely is true, on the grounds that the Tukyue burial sites in Central Asia and Southern Siberia are not yet open.

The most curious thing is that almost all of the elements of the funeral rite Ashina have analogues in the Indo-European rites, in particular the Slavic rites. About individual incision Al Bakr can be quoted: "Wives of the same dead cut their hands and faces with knives." Chinese source said that on the day of the funeral, as well as in the day of his death, family used to ride horses. There is likely to have in mind something like Slavic funeral feast. "The building was built on the grave" is an analogue of the Slavic Domowina. Burial of the ashes of the deceased in the vessel (the tomb of Kul Tigin and his wife) as is recorded by the Slav's "Tale of Bygone Years", for example where it says: "burned, and after collecting the bones, put them in a small container."

ANALYSIS OF WRITTEN SOURCES, TRADITIONS

S. G. Kljyashtorny studied the legends of the clan Ashina in comparison with historical evidence. The dynastic chronicle "Sui Shu" carries information that is realistic at its basis, the historiographical value of which now seems undeniable, "and offered to share the early history of the tribes Tÿrk of

Situation of Interior Asia in Late 6th Century with Eastern and Western Tujue, both ruled by Ashina clan

Battle of Blarathon 591

Background story:

After suffering a minor defeat in the Battle of Araxis against the Byzantines, Shah Hormizd IV humiliated general Bahram Chobin, sending to him women's clothing to wear. Thus, he, along with the main Persian army, rebelled against the Shah and marched toward Ctesiphon. Hormizd was killed and his son, Khosrau II, unable to fight such an army, fled to Constantinople and Bahram sat on the throne.

The Battle:

When General Bahram Chobin seized the Sassanid Persian throne, Emperor Maurice sent a large army to support the legitimate ruler, Khosrau II (Chosroes). The army was led by generals Narses, John Mystacon and the Persian Bindoy, uncle of Khosrau. After a fierce skirmish near Lake Urmiah, Bahram lost Ctesiphon and retreated to northwestern Iran where he was routed at Ganzak. Bahram fled to the Turks and was soon assassinated. Restoration of Khosrau ended the war. Dara and Martyropolis were returned to the Byzantines along with other disputed territories.

Aftermath:

The battle altered the course of Roman-Persian relations dramatically, leaving Byzantium in the dominant position. The extent of effective Byzantine control in the Caucasus reached its zenith historically. The same Persian themes and styles extended into Turkish painting as well Source: http://search.sothebys.com/jsps/live/lot/LotDetail.jsp?lot_id=4DV8W (downloaded Mar. 2005) "THE BATTLE BETWEEN THE SASANIAN KING KHUSRAU PARVIS AND BAHRAM CHUBINEH, ILLUMINATED LEAF FROM THE SHAHNAMA OF FIRDAWSI, TURKISH, 16TH CENTURY. Miniature 20 by 19cm. leaf 23.5 by 20cm. DESCRIPTION: gouache heightened with gold on paper, text in four columns of nasta'liq script above and below miniature and 25 on the verso, miniature mounted with leaf from the same text. CATALOGUE NOTE: This miniature is closely comparable to two leaves from an unidentified manuscript in the late Dr. Edwin Binney's collection. The miniatures exhibit a similarly crowded field of horses and warriors in a mountain scene. Abstracted rocks and trees in the left of the foreground break through into the margin, as do the army's pennants at the top of the scene. Although the Binney miniatures were catalogued as Persian in 1966, the golden sky and grouping of the army suggest a Turkish origin and the two miniatures were reassessed as Turkish and dated to 1580 in the Binney catalogue. It has been suggested that Turkish artists working on the manuscript from which these miniatures originated were working in the Tabriz style, as did those Turkish artists employed on the Houghton Shahnama (Binney 1979, cat 21a&b, p.44-46). It is likely that the current miniature is a product of the same tradition."

Kyrgyzstan

History

The area of present-day Kyrgyzstan contains evidence of human habitation from the time of the Lower Paleolithic on, approximately 300,000 years ago. Archeologists suggest that two types of economies developed in the territory—farming and pastoral nomadism. By the 7th century BC nomadism had become predominant, and the area was controlled by various tribal alliances. In the north the Saki (7th–3rd centuries BC ) were succeeded by the Usuni (2nd century BC –5th century AD ); in the south the Parkan state (2nd–1st centuries BC ) was replaced by the Kushani kingdom (1st–4th century AD ). The ethnic identity of those peoples is the subject of much debate, but they were not Turkic. From the 6th century on, various Turkic tribes began to push westward, eventually settling most of Central Asia, including Kyrgyzstan. Much of present Kyrgyzstan was united by the 7th century as part of the West Turkic Kaganate, and replaced in the 8th century by the Turgash, who in turn were conquered by the Karluk, who originated in the Altai region further north.

When the present-day Kyrgyz first came to this territory is the subject of much debate. References to tribes of that name living in the Altai occur in the 10th century, but another people with the same name who lived along the Enisei River are first mentioned in records from the 2nd century BC . The Enisei Kyrgyz formed the Kyrgyz Kaganate in about AD 650, which survived until defeat by Genghiz Khan in 1209. Kyrgyz tradition prefers to see its origin in that state, but ethnographers and archeologists view the claim with considerable skepticism.

Evidence suggests instead that the present-day Kyrgyz are an amalgamation of various peoples, as existing tribes incorporated themselves into fresh waves of conquerors. The territory was part of the Karakhanid state from about 950–1150, during which the urban population was actively involved in trade and manufacturing along the Silk Road. Conversion to Islam also began in this period.

Genghiz Khan's Mongols conquered the area in the 13th century, destroying most of the Karakhanid culture and introducing large numbers of new peoples into the area, of Turkic, Mongol, and Tibetan stock. The resulting mix of tribes was almost certainly the basis for the present-day Kyrgyz people, who retain much of the memory of those origins in the orally preserved genealogies of their 40 clans and tribes. The present Kyrgyzstan flag includes the depiction of a sun with one ray for each tribe. The Kyrgyz follow Mongol practice of dividing their people into left ( ong ) and right ( sol ) "wings," said to reflect either the deployment of troops in military formation, or the tribe's original place of habitation. There is also a third group, the ichkilik, that seems to include parts of the Kyrgyz identity.

From the 15th century until the 17th century the Kyrgyz tribes were part of the larger delineation of Central Asian history, which distinguished agricultural sedents from pastoral nomads. The appearance of the same tribal names among Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, and Uzbeks suggests how the people of this territory formed a series of tribal alliances, rather than a true state.

In the 18th century the Kyrgyz began to come under pressure from Mongol tribes farther east. This prompted some of the northern tribes to send delegations to the Russians, who had pushed into Siberia in the 17th century, and who were beginning to take what is now northern Kazakhstan under its control. The Russians made no distinction between the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz, calling both Kyrgyz. The southern Kyrgyz, however, were conquered by the Kokand Khanate, established in the late 18th century, separating them from the northern Kyrgyz. This split between south and north continues to the present day in Kyrgyz life.

Russian expansion into what it called the Steppe included Kyrgyzstan. Most of northern Kyrgyzstan was incorporated into the empire by 1863; the south followed in 1876, when Russia destroyed the Kokand Khanate. Administratively, present-day Kyrgyzstan was split among four guberniias. Beginning in the 1890s Russia settled Russian and other European farmers into the fertile river valleys of the north, forcing Kyrgyz nomads higher into the mountains.

LOCATION: 41°30′ N ; 75°0′ E. BOUNDARY LENGTHS: Total boundary lengths, 3,878 kilometers (2,410 miles); China, 858 kilometers (533.2 miles); Tajikistan, 870 kilometers (541 miles); Uzbekistan, 1,099 kilometers (683 miles); Kazakhstan, 1,051 kilometers (653 miles).

By 1916, Russia's policies of livestock requisition and land use had left the Kyrgyz badly impoverished. When Russia attempted to issue a draft call-up for Central Asian males, including the Kyrgyz, widespread fighting broke out all across the territory. The uprisings were suppressed, with great loss of life; population in the northern part dropped as much as 40%. Since independence in 1991, the state has commemorated the 1916 uprising as a genocide.

Hostility to the tsars meant that there was some support for the Bolsheviks, at least until it became clear that Lenin was not going to encourage the development of national states. Resistance to the Russians continued sporadically until the mid-1920s, in what Russian historians have labeled the Basmachi Rebellion.

Approximate extent of Scythia within the area of distribution of Eastern Iranian languages (shown in orange) in the 1st century BC

Historical map of Central Asia showing Kyrgyzstan (map circa 1885-1890)

Uyghur Princesses. Bezeklik, Cave 9, 9-12th century CE, wall painting, 66 x 57 cm. Located at the Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin-Dahlem.

Map of the Tujue Khanate (Ashina clan of Göktürks) at its greatest extent in 570.

Göktürk petroglyphs from Mongolia (6th to 8th century)

Read more: https://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Kyrgyzstan-HISTORY.html#ixzz67brhQhnv

Tulip Revolution

The Tulip Revolution, also known as the First Kyrgyz Revolution, led to the ousting of President Askar Akayev of Kyrgyzstan in early 2005. The revolution started after the parliamentary elections when Askar’s candidates become victorious in an election that was marred by election fraud according to foreign observers such as the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). A massive protest on the behalf of Kyrgyz citizens who were fed up with President Askar Akayev’s corrupt, intolerant, and authoritarian regime started after the election. He ascended into power since 1990 and had exceeded the two terms that are permitted by the constitution of Kyrgyzstan.

History

Kyrgyzstan undertook parliamentary election on February 27, 2005. The outcome of the election was a victory for President Askar Akayev as his people had won. Criticism followed, and there was unrest in the country. On March 3, 2005, there was a bomb explosion at the apartment belonging to the opposition leader Roza Otunbayeva of which the Akayev and his government denied responsibility. Protests began from the south and were soon reaching the capital, and on March 10, 2005, Kurmanbek Bakiyev who was the leader of the People’s Movement Kyrgyzstan joined the protestors. The demonstrators camped outside the parliament building in Bishkek. On March 19, 2005, three thousand people joined the protests in Bishkek and on March 20, 2005, protestors had occupied all cities in the southern part of Kyrgyzstan. Despite the mass protests, Akayev refused to negotiate with the protestors on March 22, 2005. On March 24, 2005, Akayev together with his family fled to Kazakhstan and later to Russia where he handed his resignation on April 3, 2005.

Outcome of the Revolution

The revolution brought to light the corruption that was taking place during Akayev’s regime. On March 24, 2005, non-governmental organizations together with public servants and bankers sat to make an inquiry into the corruption allegation against Akayev and on April 21, 2005, the commission released a report about the enterprises controlled by Akayev's family.

The Tulip Revolution brought a regime change in Kyrgyzstan. It forced President Askar Akayev to resign, bringing an end to his dictatorial and corrupt government as was stated by OSCE. It led to the formation of an interim government that was supposed to oversee the restoration of peace in the country. On June 10, 2005, the presidential election took place in which Bakiyev and Kulov appointed the prime minister. The elections were lauded by the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) as to have been free and fair and well organized.

Akayev then took legal actions against the anti-corruption commission chair in the Bakiyev’s government arguing that the corruption cases labeled against him were false. Akayev also sued a newspaper journalist for defamation.

Conclusion

Many believe that the Tulip Revolution was a significant turning point for Kyrgyzstan as this led to the end of the corrupt and intolerant reign of President Akayev. It also set an example to other Asian governments who thought that their governments were not ready for democracy. From this revolution, we learn that lack of transparency and fairness in a state causes unrest. Democracy is, therefore, essential for a government's stability.

Article cite on world atlas

Du Fu

Also known as Du Fu, Tu Fu is considered with Li Po to be one of China’s greatest poets of the Tang dynasty. Tu Fu was born to a minor scholar-official in Henan Province. His mother died while he was young, and an aunt helped raised him. Though he studied for the civil service exam to become a civil servant like his father, Tu Fu failed to pass and spent many years traveling. His early poems thread together incidents from his travels and personal accounts of the hardships he endured; he also wrote poems to or about Li Po.

 

Tu Fu petitioned the government for an official position and was appointed registrar in the crown prince’s palace, though the An Lushan Rebellion of 755 prevented him from occupying the post. The rebellion, which lasted for nearly eight years, severely disrupted Chinese society. In these years, Tu Fu led an itinerant life, writing poetry about the events he witnessed and endured—famine, political unrest, and personal tragedy.

 

Though he eventually took up the post of registrar, Tu Fu is thought to have caused trouble by being overly conscientious and was demoted. He eventually moved to Sichuan, where he lived in a cottage and wrote many poems describing his relatively happy life. His last years were again spent moving from place to place, including a two-year period at Kuizhou, where he won the support of the governor of the region and wrote many poems in his dense, late style. Tu Fu and his family began traveling again in 768. He died in Hunan Province and was survived by his wife and two remaining sons.

 

Tu Fu is often described as a poet-historian, and his works convey the emotional impact and import of political and social issues and register a range of private concerns, trials, and dramas. His poems are remarkable for their range of moods as well as contents. According to one of his translators, David Hinton, “[Tu Fu] explored the full range of experience, and from this abundance shaped the monumental proportions of being merely human.”

Article cite on PoemsNation

Economy of Vietnam

Economy - overview: Vietnam is a densely populated developing country that has been transitioning since 1986 from the rigidities of a centrally planned, highly agrarian economy to a more industrial and market based economy, and it has raised incomes substantially. Vietnam exceeded its 2017 GDP growth target of 6.7% with growth of 6.8%, primarily due to unexpected increases in domestic demand, and strong manufacturing exports.

Vietnam has a young population, stable political system, commitment to sustainable growth, relatively low inflation, stable currency, strong FDI inflows, and strong manufacturing sector. In addition, the country is committed to continuing its global economic integration. Vietnam joined the WTO in January 2007 and concluded several free trade agreements in 2015-16, including the EU-Vietnam Free Trade Agreement (which the EU has not yet ratified), the Korean Free Trade Agreement, and the Eurasian Economic Union Free Trade Agreement. In 2017, Vietnam successfully chaired the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Conference with its key priorities including inclusive growth, innovation, strengthening small and medium enterprises, food security, and climate change. Seeking to diversify its opportunities, Vietnam also signed the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for the Transpacific Partnership in 2018 and continued to pursue the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership.

To continue its trajectory of strong economic growth, the government acknowledges the need to spark a ‘second wave’ of reforms, including reforming state-owned-enterprises, reducing red tape, increasing business sector transparency, reducing the level of non-performing loans in the banking sector, and increasing financial sector transparency. Vietnam’s public debt to GDP ratio is nearing the government mandated ceiling of 65%.

In 2016, Vietnam cancelled its civilian nuclear energy development program, citing public concerns about safety and the high cost of the program; it faces growing pressure on energy infrastructure. Overall, the country’s infrastructure fails to meet the needs of an expanding middle class. Vietnam has demonstrated a commitment to sustainable growth over the last several years, but despite the recent speed-up in economic growth the government remains cautious about the risk of external shocks.

GDP (purchasing power parity): $648.7 billion (2017 est.) $607.4 billion (2016 est.) $571.9 billion (2015 est.) note: data are in 2017 dollarscountry comparison to the world: 35 [see also: GDP country ranks ]

GDP (official exchange rate): $220.4 billion (2017 est.) [see also: GDP (official exchange rate) country ranks ]

GDP - real growth rate: 6.8% (2017 est.) 6.2% (2016 est.) 6.7% (2015 est.)country comparison to the world: 25 [see also: GDP - real growth rate country ranks ]

GDP - per capita: $6,900 (2017 est.) $6,600 (2016 est.) $6,200 (2015 est.) note: data are in 2017 dollarscountry comparison to the world: 159 [see also: GDP - per capita country ranks ]

Gross national saving: 29% of GDP (2017 est.) 29.5% of GDP (2016 est.) 27.5% of GDP (2015 est.)country comparison to the world: 33 [see also: Gross national saving country ranks ]

GDP - composition, by end use: household consumption: 66.9% (2017 est.) [see also: GDP - composition, by end use - household consumption country ranks ] government consumption: 6.5% (2017 est.) [see also: GDP - composition, by end use - government consumption country ranks ] investment in fixed capital: 24.2% (2017 est.) [see also: GDP - composition, by end use - investment in fixed capital country ranks ] investment in inventories: 2.8% (2017 est.) [see also: GDP - composition, by end use - investment in inventories country ranks ] exports of goods and services: 100% (2017 est.) [see also: GDP - composition, by end use - exports of goods and services country ranks ] imports of goods and services: -101% (2017 est.) [see also: GDP - composition, by end use - imports of goods and service

Marco Polo Bridge Incident

Marco Polo Bridge Incident, (July 7, 1937), conflict between Chinese and Japanese troops near the Marco Polo Bridge (Chinese: Lugouqiao) outside Beiping (now Beijing), which developed into the warfare between the two countries that was the prelude to the Pacific side of World War II.

In 1931 Japan occupied Manchuria (now Northeast China) and established the puppet state of Manchukuo  (Manzhouguo), spending large sums to develop the region’s industry and continuing to expand their occupation into northern China around Beiping and Tianjin. This violation of China’s territorial integrity produced a growing anti-Japanese movement in China. By 1937 this movement had grown so strong that the Chinese communists and Nationalists agreed to end their civil war and form a United Front against further Japanese aggression.

Before the incident occurred, the Japanese army had occupied Fengtai, the railway junction close to the Marco Polo Bridge, southwest of Beiping. On the night of July 7, 1937, a small Japanese force on maneuvers near the Marco Polo Bridge demanded entry to the tiny walled town of Wanping in order to search for one of their soldiers. The Chinese garrison in the town refused the Japanese entry; a shot was heard, and the two sides began firing. The Chinese government, under strong anti-Japanese pressure, refused to make any concessions in the negotiation of the dispute. The Japanese also maintained their position. As a result, the conflict continued to grow.

As the fighting spread to central China, the Japanese scored successive victories. The Japanese government, under mounting public pressure not to retreat, decided to seek a quick victory in China. However, this eluded them, and the two sides plunged into what was to become the Sino-Japanese War  (1937–45) and, in 1941, the Pacific theatre of World War II.

Kyoto

The Kyoto basin was first settled in the 7th century, and by 794 it had become Heian-kyō, the capital of Japan. Like Nara, a previous capital, the city was laid out in a grid pattern modelled on the Chinese Tang dynasty capital, Chang’an (contemporary Xi’an). Although the city was to serve as home to the Japanese imperial family from 794 to 1868 (when the Meiji Restoration took the imperial family to the new capital, Tokyo), the city was not always the focus of Japanese political power. During the Kamakura period (1185–1333), Kamakura served as the national capital, and during the Edo period (1600–1867), the Tokugawa shōgunate ruled Japan from Edo (now Tokyo).

The problem was that from the 9th century, the imperial family was increasingly isolated from the mechanics of political power and the country was ruled primarily by military families, or shōgunates. While Kyoto still remained capital in name and was the cultural focus of the nation, imperial power was, for the most part, symbolic and the business of running state affairs was often carried out elsewhere.

Just as imperial fortunes have waxed and waned, the fortunes of the city itself have fluctuated dramatically. During the Ōnin War (1466–67), which marked the close of the Muromachi period, the Kyoto Gosho (Imperial Palace) and most of the city were destroyed. Much of what can be seen in Kyoto today dates from the Edo period. Although political power resided in Edo, Kyoto was rebuilt and flourished as a cultural, religious and economic centre. Fortunately Kyoto was spared the aerial bombing that razed other Japanese urban centres in the closing months of WWII.

Today, even though it has seen rapid industrialisation Kyoto remains an important cultural and educational centre. It has some 20% of Japan’s National Treasures and 15% of Japan’s Important Cultural Properties. In addition, there are 24 museums and 37 universities and colleges scattered throughout the city. Even though the city centre looks remarkably like the centre of a dozen other large Japanese cities, a little exploration will turn up countless reminders of Kyoto’s long history.

Christianity in Japan

   The growth of Christianity in Japan was stymied by the country's isolationist policies following the arrival of Catholicism in the 16th century. That isolation ended in 1854, when the United States forced an opening of the country to foreign trade and cultural influence. The 1858 Townsend Harris Treaty provided an opening for Protestants, and a spectrum of groups initiated work beginning the next year.

   The Episcopal Church, the Presbyterian Church, and the Reformed Church in America were the first to take advantage of the new opportunity; they were able to react quickly by drawing personnel from China. They began translating the Bible and other Christian materials into Japanese and developed strategies to respond to Japanese hostility to "un-Japanese" culture. During their first decade, work was confined to Nagasaki and Yokohama, where the first permanent Protestant church was built in 1872.

   The early missionaries tried to keep American sectarian differences out of Japan, and the first groups of converts were brought together in congregations simply called the Church of Christ. A united Protestant seminary was opened in 1877, and that same year the churches of the Calvinist tradition merged their work as the United Church of Christ of Japan.

   in 1878, the Japanese government removed all of the restrictions that had limited access by missionaries, and a new wave of missionaries representing different churches flocked to the country. Many churches established schools and hospitals. By the end of the century, there were almost 100,000 Japanese Protestants, mostly affiliated with denominations that had originated in the United States.

   in 1940, the Japanese government ordered all Protestant and Free Church groups to merge into a single United Church of Christ of Japan. A few churches,including the Anglicans, the Seventh-day Adventists, and most of the Holiness bodies (such as the Salvation Army) refused to join.

 

Their existence as legal entities ended, though they survived the war years underground and were able to reestablish themselves after the war. After the declaration of religious freedom by the American occupation authorities, many of the denominations decided to continue as the United Church of Christ of Japan, while others withdrew to reestablish their separate work.

   in the generation after the war, more than 2,500 Western missionaries arrived, most of them representing the hundreds of smaller Evangelical church bodies in the United States. The number of Christian denominations in Japan rose sharply (while at the same time the number of new Buddhist groups also rapidly increased).

   Today, some 300 separate Protestant and Free Church groups operate in Japan, though most remain quite small. The total Christian community includes around 3 percent of the Japanese citizenry. Among the older Protestant bodies, the United Church of Christ of Japan and the Japan Holy Catholic Church (Anglican) are among the larger ones; they are the backbone (along with the Holy Orthodox Church of Japan) of the National Christian Council of Japan, which is affiliated with the World Council of Churches. Some of the more conservative churches are affiliated with the Japan Evangelical Association affiliated with the World Evangelical Alliance.

   Since World War II, Japan has also been the target of missionary work from countries other than the United States. Most notably, a number of Korean churches have emerged in the country.

   David Yonghi Cho's large center in Seoul has spurred the formation of the Japan Full Gospel Church, and Korean expatriates have formed the Korean Christian Church in Japan. The Little Flock (the Local Church) has come to Japan from China, and a variety of groups have developed from Scandinavian missionary efforts. Several of the churches more on the fringe of Protestantism - the Unification Movement, the Jehovah's Witnesses, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints - have also enjoyed